THIS IS A SEMINAR PRESENTED ON THE CHAPTER FOUR OF THE BOOK 'HOLOSISM: A POLITICAL THEORY', AUTHORED BY B. ABANUKA C.S.Sp
TOPIC: AFRICAN SCIENCE AND MEDICINE
Preamble
Traditionally,
Africans have an oral heritage and rarely a written one. This is expressed more
in our folktales, myth, and religion; even in our science and medicine. This,
according to the author, seems to be the reason behind ‘the African scientific
approach’ not often distinguished from religion. Another reason is this; the
fundamental intuitive character of the African theory of knowledge seems to
have relegated analysis to the background. In this way, Africans emphasize more
on the visible result and not on step by step demonstration of how it (the
result) is got (observation, experimentation, verification).
Nevertheless,
this does not deny the discursive reasoning (i.e. intuition) since it takes
both (intuition and reason) to give rise to proper human knowledge, just as
induction and deduction both demonstrate (together) how that knowledge was
attained. So the primary concept such as wholeness and unity is highlighted by
basic intuitive awareness of the order of nature (reasoning goes with analysis
and experimentation).
Let
us go on to investigate the African approach to science through examination of
four aspects of the African universe: Medicine and Divination; Ancestry and the
gods may be discussed in the next sub-section.
Medicine and Divination
Africans
recognize a relation between cause and effect. This is shown in African
traditional medicine, where any bodily ailment is believed to arise from either
physical, sociological, or spiritual causes. The physical and spiritual or
sociological aspects of human health are taken care of by traditional herbs and
divination respectively. Certain herbs or a combination of more, are believed
to cure a given illness. For example, for yellow paw-paw leaves mixed with
about thirty leaves of bitter-leaf plant and smashed in about eight (8) bottles
of water, and taken on a dosage of one glass twice a day, for ten days,
cures malaria fever. On the critical
examination, one could see that this prescription is based on the identity of
reality. Like the modern science, the African traditional medicine seems to
recognize the link between malaria parasite and mosquito, but unlike the modern
medicine, the approach to it is different: bedroom fire seems to be partly a
device to check the incidence of mosquito bites – since the smoke from it keeps
them away.
The
African Traditional herbal doctor may often invoke the gods, water spirits (as
regards his background) or the Supreme Being: this does not change the fact
that specific herbs cure specific diseases, rather it is done to accord certain respect to the
traditional medicine – since the African world view stems from religion.
Concisely,
the difference between African Traditional medicine and modern western medicine
lies on the fact that while the former could be said to be based on the
identity of reality, the latter emphasizes on both the identity and difference
in reality.
There
could also be a case in the African Traditional practice, where the various
traditional herbs known to the community are exhausted on an ailment without success.
In this case, a diviner could be more appropriate since the cause of this
illness may have transcended the organic level.
Divination
is when one seeks to fathom the will of the Supreme Being for his or her
client. The will of the Supreme Being for the individual is manifested in the
customs, laws and traditions of the community in which the individual exists or
is part. According to the author, B.
Abanuka, “the determination of the will of the Supreme Being is the prerogative
of the individual as a particular person”1. If this is so, how then
can another person seek to fathom the will of the Supreme Being for another,
since, practically speaking, he can only determine the will of the Supreme
Being for himself alone?
It
lies in the fact that the client alone
knows the will of the Supreme Being for him, and without a sufficient
co-operation with the diviner, the diviner cannot make any effective judgment.
Even in situations where a diviner may have to deal with more than one person
(family members and friends) so as to determine the extent the individual
fulfills his social and religious duties, the diviner (and indeed any other
diviner) uses his beads as ploys to seek the co-operation of his client.
Nevertheless, divination can be regarded as a means of healing.
As
mentioned earlier, African traditional medicine is based on the theory of
identity of reality. The identity of reality, in turn, is based on a unitary
view of reality which does not deny differences. In fact, it accepts the difference
in nature, but accounts for this difference as related to degrees of intensity
or complication of reality. Due to the limitation of the human mind, and
because of the infinite varieties of the real, man cannot completely grasp all
the features of reality. In this reality is involved the physical world,
ancestors, gods, Supreme Being, which are also effectively active in the
worldly affairs of men. This seems to support divination..
Indeed
the African traditional medicine is attentive to all the levels of human life
and experience, but it has a lesson to teach on specialization. The very fact
that there are native doctors, diviners etc. has made it clear that a native
doctor can refer his patient to the diviner when he can no longer cope with the
illness. There are factors, of course, which militate against the observance of
specialization, and this is what African states should strive to eradicate. An
instance is when one is poor amidst under-development, he/she can show himself
as a doctor and a diviner at a time, and we know that traditional view of
healing is both a profession and a vocation (e.g. agwu in Igboland).
Relating
to health education are three points – according to the author – underscored in
the African Traditional medicine thus: three important actors are necessarily
involved in the process of healing:
v The
Supreme Being who is the first origin of all things that are, and His
assistants, the gods and ancestors.
v The
health care worker who is a representation of the community. He dispenses
medicine through experience, and finds joy, not in the material aspect of the
work, but inner joy that comes from participation in the sustenance of life.
v Man,
who should endeavor to maintain a healthy mind and body which is part of his
obligation to attain self-actualization. Thus the saying: “health is wealth”.
In
order to distinguish the aspect of the African science from the religious and
mythical aspects, a great attention should be paid to the close link between
aspects of African science. This link does not imply that there is no
distinction between these. This is made clearer in the author’s ‘Myth and African universe’ where the
link was highlighted between African science, myth and religion without denying
the distinction between them.
In
any case, it can be said that African science is positive in as much as it is
science and recognized. The author states that African science also follows the
method of observation and experimentation to arrive at its laws and theories.
Thus, the mixture of bitter leaf leaves and paw-paw leaves was tested and
proven to cure malaria. Here, the doctor experiments these on himself and not
on any dog or mouse.
We
can say that Western science follows the theory of contraries in so far as it
emphasizes the differences in reality. It favours the atomic theory and
highlights the contrary natures in
reality, unlike the African counterpart.
It is limited to the physical order since it makes use of just sense data.
Consequently, it tends to overlook or avoid questions of coherence and depth
which are accounted for in African science.
African
science is uniquely humanistic since its interest lies in the well-being of man
as a corporeal and spiritual being (not just here, but also beyond; in the land
of the gods and ancestors). The reality of ancestors, who were once like us, is
the conviction of this science, in the relevance of the eternal order.
We
then pose a question thus:
What
is the significance of the eternal order of reality – especially as it relates
to the Supreme Being, the gods and the ancestors – to African science?
Evaluation and Conclusion
The big problem with African science and
medicine is the unpatriotic attitude of many Africans. Many who go for it
(afro-medical) take it as an option for the poor, while others take it as the
last resort. It is time we started making our own thing what it should be – to
be able to compete with the rest of the world.
End Notes
Reference
B.
Abanuka, Holosim: A political Theory, Enugu;
Snaap Press (NIg) Ltd., 2007
Presented by: Oforma Austyn CAFRICAN MORAL NORMS
INTRODUCTION
LIFE IN COMMUNION
This is inseparable from a typical African setting. The community life is made up of the individual families which are in turn formed by the individual persons. It is believed that no one is a compendium of everything so that he or she needs the support of others and in turn renders support to other. In this type of community, hardly will anyone feel cheated since there is maximum effort to forestall justice and peace – as the Igbo proverb goes, “emee nwata ka-emere ibe ya, obi adi yam ma”[1]. The community is greater than any individual. This explains why discipline is not farfetched in the African society. Whatever the community agrees to do is what every member adheres to – to maintain peace and a sense of belonging. Any offender is punished duely according to the law and depending on the level of the offence committed.
In the African community, things are done in common, – eating, working, children playing, buying and selling, and other aspects of living – things are owned in common and this explains why Africans live together or at least have a condensed form of settlement. The community provides food for its for its members; shelter also, and even security. When in danger, one can easily get help around and the sense of communal love will only move anyone who hears a cry for help to render help. Bright Chimezie, an Igbo musician portrayed this in his track, ‘o nuru ube nwanne agbala oso’[2]. Unlike in the west, the old people are well taken care of in Africa – this is a dividend of communal living. He/she will never lack water or food or any basic necessity – the children and the grand children are there for them.
SACREDNESS AND PRECIOUSNESS OF LIFE
Life in Africa is of great value. It is sacred and should not be tampered with – whether one’s own or that of another. It is believed that life is the highest gift from the creator; it must be accounted for, and since it has no duplicate, one should live it in the best possible way. This accounts for why the corpse of a man or woman who commits suicide is thrown into the evil forest and is never given a befitting burial. Before the coming of the colonial masters, abortion was never thought of (it was a big abomination), wars were not as bloody as they are today (the last resort)[3], and even human sacrifices (if any) were done to preserve the life of the people. Those who were killed were people whose continued living constitutes a great danger to the life of others.
In one of his tracks, Oliver de Coque, an Igbo musician, showed the importance in accommodating others when he sang, “I biri ka m biri. Onye azola uwa azo, uwa ga-abata onye obula”.[4] Life is worth respecting – of both young and old. The young because they are the future generation who will pilot the affairs of the community; the old because they constitute in them great wisdom that will help the community; they are also sources of encouragement to the youths who will, one day, be in their shoes.
VALUE FOR VIRGINITY
This, more often, tends towards the young women, as there are no empirical evidences to determine which man is a virgin or not. Virginity is cherished in the African traditional set up. It is believed to be the best gift a woman can give to her husband in her marriage. On the wedding night, a white cloth is spread on the bed where the bride and the bridegroom will lie. Certain signs such as the bloodistained cloth will prove whether the bride is or is not a virgin.
One of the implications of this is that the family of the woman is praised for doing a great job of helping to preserve their daughter up till this time (if she was still a virgin). This is a cause of great joy for both families as virginity is taken to a high esteem. It also shows that the girl has kept herself pure and spotless and this alone will earn her respect in the sight of the husband and the community.
Through this, the community goes a long way into inculcating in the minds of the youths, the need to live a careful, simple and pure life, and the need to avoid sexual immorality (or pre-marital sex) for it is believed that, if one can hold himself or herself until marriage, he or she can control himself or herself in marriage and so be faithful and enjoy the marriage.
EVALUATION AND CONCLUSION
Africans are highly moral people. They believe and strive towards the good of all and the individual (since the individual is a part of this ‘all’). He who co-operates, enjoys the benefits every member enjoys; while a deviant can as well suffer alone.
There are many more values an African holds in high esteem: respect for elders, hard work, cleanliness, fulfilling ones religious duties, riddles and proverbs, good relationship, preservation of his or her own language, culture and tradition etc. In all these, we see a unifying factor – love and care for the community and one another. It is believed that what one possesses is the community’s and what the community has is for all. This is why every body rejoices with one who is successful and mourns or condoles with one who suffers misfortune. In Africa, the right expression for condolence is not, as the English would have it, “it’s a pity!” or “hard luck” but ‘sorry’[5] – this shows not just sympathy but empathy.
A closer look at these values will show that, Africans are not just humans with emotions but people of intelligence who think and have reasons for whatever they do. They did not just start practicing them; they created them for the good and welfare of the people believing that the world will be much better if it inculcates in the people, most of these values.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abanuka B., A History Of African Philosophy, (Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd), 2011
Amadi E., Ethicsin Nigerian Culture, Macmillan Publishers Ibadan, 1982.
Chukwube S., Unpublished lecture notes, Spiritan School of Philosophy Isienu, 2011/2012.
Davidson B., The Afrcan Genius, Boston publishers U.S.A 1961.
Idowu Bolaji, God in Yoruba Belief, UAE publishers London, 1962.
[1] When a child receives the treatment given to other children, he/she will be happy.
[2] Let him not run who hears the cry of a brother or sister.
[3] Wars are seen as the last resort when every other strategy fails.
[4] Live and let live; let no one monopolize the world for it is large enough to contain all.
[5] In Igboland, for example, there is no other word besides ‘ndo’ which means ‘sorry’. Again, Africans do more of empathizing than sympathizing.
By Austyn Chimbuoyim
AFRICAN ETHICS: SUPERNALISM OR NOT?
INTRODUCTION
African societies, as organized and functioning human communities, have undoubtedly well developed ethical systems—ethical values, principles, rules—intended to guide social and moral behaviour. However, like African philosophy, the ideas and beliefs of the African society that bear on ethical conduct have always raised provoking thoughts. There has been an age-long debate concerning the nature of moral thinking in traditional African societies which has long dominated the scholarship of ethical thinkers and social anthropologists alike. Hence, this paper seeks to discuss one of such issues, that is, if African ethical values fall under supernaturalism.
EXPOSITION
The ethics of a society is embedded in the ideas and beliefs about what is right or wrong, what is a good or bad character; it is also embedded in the conceptions of satisfactory social relations and attitudes held by the members of the society. ‘African ethics’, from this perspective, refers to both the moral beliefs and presuppositions of the African people. It is the philosophical clarification and interpretation of those beliefs and its presuppositions.
Supernaturalism on its own is an ethical system that upholds the belief that supernatural or divine beings and phenomena intervene in human events. That is to say, it is an ethical system that is anchored on a religious stamina.
Western scholars and intellectuals had justified colonialism as a “civilizing mission” meant to rescue African “savages” whose only mode of regulating conduct was through religion and magical sanctions. According to these scholars, in African traditional cultures, there are no behavioural patterns, which can be properly referred to, as ‘moral’. The argument here is that behavioural patterns of the purely secular kind, which exist in more complex societies, were completely absent in traditional African societies, such that relationships between individuals in African society only had a religious undertone.
One of such scholars, E.W. Smith depicts African morality as ‘taboo morality’. The African, he argues, “is taught to revere custom as a religion and resent change”.[1] Smith lists three types of sanctions, which according to him explain African customs and behavioural patterns. These include religious, traditional and magical sanctions. The religious sanction, Smith says, is the oldest and strongest of the three, and exercises the greatest influence on African behavioural pattern. Levy-Bruhl in responding to Smith asserts that he (Smith) has no point since his views are that of an armchair scholar which lacked any scientific or empirical support. Furthermore, he says that Africans are open to change and that is why they accepted Christianity and Islam that are foreign to them. He avers that Africa man has a distinction between religion and their ethical conduct.
Many African writers have reacted to this issue of bracketing African ethics under supernaturalism. Kwasi Wiredu in discussing the morality of the Akan people of Ghana says “Morality among the Akans is not founded on religion but on consideration for human welfare”[2]. He argues further that they have no system of divine revelation hence no one could claim that they have a doctrine handed down by God through a prophet.
Placid Tempels in speaking about the Bantu ethics observes that “Objective morality to the Bantu people is ontological, immanent and intrinsic”[3]. Bantu moral standards, he continues “depends on things ontologically understood, hence they do not see their ethics as something prescribe by any god or gods”[4]
In his article “An Ethical Study of Ethiopian Philosophy”, Claude Summer asserts that “in spite of the long established Christian influence in Ethiopia, the Ethiopian traditional morality is not based on a religious morality but on a natural light of reason with conscience playing a central role”[5]
Driving it down home, Dr S.B. Oluwole also argues that “Yoruba morality is not a religious morality; contrary to the general belief. It is, on the contrary, a secular morality with a rational basis”[6]. It is not as if the gods have no role to play in Yoruba culture. The gods come in when human limitation could not allow them to reach absolute justice.
In an interview granted by Maazi Kanu Nwafor[7], he opines succinctly that “the gods simply helps us to uphold our ethical values, they do not make laws for us, not even me as Eze mmuo (Chief Priest) can alter that”.[8]
EVALUATION
There is a thin line between religion and ethics. Ethics, like religion is also concerned about the morality of human conduct and both presupposes human freedom and responsibility. However, religion is not primarily concern with morality. The direct object of religion is worship, adoration through tithes and prayers; morality comes in here because it is a necessary condition for true worship. We have seen that there are even some individuals who profess no religious belief and belong to no religion, yet, have a high sense of moral value. Such people exist in African and they still conform to the African ethics.
CONCLUSION
The claim that the values and principles of African morality are not founded on religion simply derives from the characterization of traditional African religion as a non-revealed religion. In the history of the indigenous religions in African, it does not seem that anyone in any African community has ever claimed to have received a revelation from the Supreme Being intended either for the people of the community or for all humanity. This characterization makes African ethics independent of religion and, thus, underlines the notion of the autonomy of ethics in regard to African ethics. If a religion is a non-revealed religion, then it is independent of religious prescriptions and commands. The characterization of traditional African religion would, thus, lead me to assert—to generalize by inductive logic—that the moral system of each African society—in the traditional setting—does not derive from religion. Thus, it is an autonomous moral system. Similarly, the claim about the social (non-individualistic) morality of the African society is closely related to the community and shared life of the African people.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHUKWUB, S., Unpublished Ethics II Lecture Note, Spiritan School of Philosophy, Isienu. 2012
EBIJUWA, T., “Conscience, Morality and Social Responsibility in an African Culture,” Quest: Philosophical Discussions, 9 (2): 1999.
OLUWOLE, S.B, ‘The Rational Basis of Yoruba Ethical Thinking’ in the Nigerian Journal of Philosophy, Vol 4. 2001.
OMOREGBE, J., Ethics: a Systematic and Historical Study. Joja Educational Research and Publications Limited 1993.
SUMMER, C., “An Ethical Study of Ethiopian Philosophy”, in H. Oruka & D. Masois, Philosophy and Culture, Kenya Bookwise Ltd 1983.
TEMPELS, P., Bantu Philosophy, Paris, Presence African Press, 1998.
WIREDU, K., “Morality and Religion in Akan Thought” in H. Oruka & D. Masois, Philosophy and Culture, Kenya Bookwise Ltd 1983.
[1] Ebijuwa, T.“Conscience, Morality and Social Responsibility in an African Culture,” Quest: Philosophical Discussions, 9 (2):, 1999 p. 89
[2] K. Wiredu, “Morality and Religion in Akan Thought” in H. Oruka & D. Masois, Philosophy and Culture, Kenya Bookwise Ltd 1983, P 7
[3] P. Tempels, Bantu Philosophy, Paris, Presence African Press, P 121
[4] Ibid
[5] C.Summer, “An Ethical Study of Ethiopian Philosophy”, in H. Oruka & D. Masois, Philosophy and Culture, Kenya Bookwise Ltd 1983, P 91-101
[6] S.B Oluwole, ‘The Rational Basis of Yoruba Ethical Thinking’ in the Nigerian Journal of Philosophy, vol 4, pp. 14-25
[7] Mazi Kanu Nwafor, a 70yr old man and Eze mmuo of Ikeji-ogwo shine at Ndi-awa in Arondizuogu, Imo State
